Young People in American Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Young People in American Society - Essay Example According to the essay in 1990, students’ (adolescents) violent attitude and violence in schools got dedicated attention from the society. The move was based upon ensuring peaceful atmosphere in schools and colleges and to invest educational resources on productive and learning targets rather than disciplining young students. But evil behind this oppression remained strong and untouched so far and this evil is called ‘adultism’. The adultism is discriminatory ‘ism’ for young members of the society. This particular ‘ism’ consists of closest family members, teachers and elders etc. The after effects of this oppression are very dangerous and endless for example adults may force their dependants to steal, beg, fight, break laws, deal with drugs and adopt prostitution. In addition to illegitimate and immoral activities differential oppression can be inflict with apparently positive and ethical dogmas based upon religious beliefs, cultural trad itions and   regional   limits.From this paper it is clear that governments are allegedly great contributors of differential theory via discriminatory legal system against young people. The lack of protective laws for young people should be considered as oppressive behavior against them.  Our current economic systems are also dominated by certain group which is largely made up of adults. Thus it violates young people’s desires to take part in competition with adults in business and offices.... Political Ageism Governments are allegedly great contributors of differential theory via discriminatory legal system against young people. The lack of protective laws for young people should be considered as oppressive behavior against them. Economic Ageism Our current economic systems are also dominated by certain group which is largely made up of adults. Thus it violates young people's desires to take part in competition with adults in business and offices. Cultural Ageism Even though we are living in more civilized societies, but discrimination on the basis of sex, color, race, religion, ethnicity and age is universally everywhere. Children are among top victims in cultural divisions, they are not even provided with simple choices such as career, education, marriage and employment. Interpersonal Ageism Young people are oppressed interpersonally not only by parents, guardians but also by friends and siblings and sometimes by neighbors and teachers as well. Kind of oppressions by these groups is of discouraging, disrespecting and unrecognized nature. The reaction by the young people in response to oppressions is of severe violence oriented and it can be witnessed everywhere. In United Sates of America this oppression has resulted into extreme youth reactions in form of high rising school crimes, rage, and unlawful activities among students. The introduction of overly restricted rules and regulations is another contributor in juvenile offenses in United Sates, consequently pushing youngsters towards more depression and ultimately societal epidemic. A distinctive element of differential oppression is that the already victimized people (at the time of their youth) are

International Humanitarian Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Humanitarian Law - Case Study Example It is clear that the fighting in Ruritania may not be considered as conflicts of an international character. However, the facts of the case clearly states that the element of the crime as defined above is satisfied. The civilian guards did not take part in any hostilities such that they fall within the ambit of the above-mentioned provision. It is worthy to note the Report of the Preparatory Committee on the establishment of an International Criminal Court on the Draft Statute for the International Criminal Court, addendum 1, UN Doc. /CONF.183/2/Add.1, p. 21. The employment of children to support the front line, or activities at the front line itself, would be included within the said provision. In the instant case, Samba (13 yrs) and Yade (14 yrs) were chosen as personal bodyguards of Guru X because they are the strongest 'junior Panthers. This act clearly violates the above-stated provision. In the case of Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Decision on the confirmation of charges, 29 January 2007 the ICC pronounced that Articles 8(2)(b)(xxvi) and 8(2)(e)(vii) are applicable even if children are employed to safeguard the physical safety of military commanders (Par. 263). It might be argued that the recruitment taken by the Black Panthers is not covered under the purview of conscription and enlistment. In this regard, the disquisit ion in the same case is illuminating thus: "The Rome Statute prefers the terms "conscripting" and "enlisting" to "recruitment". In light of the foregoing, the Chamber holds the view that "conscripting" and "enlisting" are two forms of recruitment, "conscripting" being forcible recruitment, while "enlisting" pertains more to voluntary recruitment. It follows therefore that enlisting is a "voluntary" act, whilst conscripting is forcible recruitment. In other words, the child's consent is not a valid defence." (par 246-247). Hence, whether or not the enticement of the children to join the Black Panthers was done through force or by the voluntary acts of the former, the same is prohibited by the Statute. Although the plan of Guru X to forcibly compel the captured prisoners of the Black Panthers to join them were not followed by his second in command-Tutu, the setting up of recruitment centers in safe places within Ruritania, taking into account the fact that the Black Panthers did not even bother to ascertain the ages of the recruits, clearly violated the Statute, even though the conflict in the country is not international in character. Looking now into the individual

Floods in India and Its Control Essay Example for Free

Floods in India and Its Control Essay Countries irrigated by an adequate river system are in many ways blessed. These rivers not only help agriculture, but they provide a cheap and efficient transport system for the development of internal trade. The saying goes—land divides, seas unite. But waterways bring also a good deal of misery to the people by causing devastating seasonal floods In India, for example, the sub-Himalayan regions of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal and Assam are heavily flooded by the rivers of the Gengetic basin and the Brahmaputra, almost every rainy season. It brings untold sufferings to the people of these low-lying plains. Millions are rendered homeless; men and cattle die in large numbers; the damage to property including standing crops is incalculable. Besides, floods affect the health of the locality and increase the incidence of cholera, typhoid and other water-borne diseases. In 1922 and 1998 flood in North Bengal left a trail of devastation, essentially in Malda, Murshidabad areas. Floods are caused by an excessive flow of water in rivers during the rainy seasons, due mainly to torrential rain in catchment areas. This may be due to two natural causes. First, the melting of ice in glacier on the mountains may thus supply a river with volumes of water much in excess of its containing and carrying capacity. Secondly, heavy rains on the mountains cause an excess of water supply. In either case, the excess water overflows the embankments and submerges the low-lying plains. Bursting of dams and also Bridges in protective embankments lead to inundation. This causes large-scale deforestation. As for example, in the Terai regions during the war, floods destroyed the natural embankments of a river. Occasionally earthquakes, by changing the course of a river, or by raising its basin or choking and silting the riverbed cause flood Another contributory cause is the construction of railway bridges without leaving provision for the natural outflow of flood-water. Of course, floods in an agricultural country have often been looked upon as a blessing in disguise. Floods leave behind on the submerged areas a rich alluvial or silt-deposit, which greatly increases the fertility of the soil. This soil on either side of the Nile owes its fertility to the annual flooding of the area, which submerges large regions, even after the construction of Aswan Dam in Egypt. Nehru used to say—give unto the river what naturally belongs to her, i. e. homesteads should not be built on riversides or on temporary char lands. That is a sure preventive measure, better than steps to resist after-effects. Men have tried from the earliest times to build protective embankments against the incidence of floods. Ordinarily these can be made sufficiently strong to resist the usual type of floods. A system of canals to irrigate the low-lying plains affords considerable escape route for the excess water caused by a normal rainfall. But these embankments should have to be maintained properly. Modern river engineering and hydro-dynamics, however, have led to a fundamental change in the principle. It is now realised that effective control of flood should begin at the source. Flood control, therefore, in these days has moved upstream. This includes the building of adequate reservoirs in the head stream area and the application of the principle of multipurpose river control. The building of a sufficient number of reservoirs is a long-drawn and costly process. Public sentiment may not take kindly to it; for it necessarily causes large-scale displacement of population as has been noticed in the Narmada Banchao movement of Sm. Patakar. For taming the turbulent Damodar, the age-long river of sorrow, by constructing the Tilaya, Mython and other dams across her, many Bihar villagers had to be shifted, and this was not liked by the local population. The future, no doubt, belongs to successful working of multi-purpose schemes. So petty objections, raised by individual or local interest, must give way before the larger needs of the people. In recent years, the rainy season has brought heavy floods all along the sub-Himalayan plains. The overflow of the tributaries of the Ganges and the Bramhaputra has caused untold sufferings to the people of these localities. Embankments have been broken, bridges have been washed away; villages have been waterlogged, cutting off all communications for days together. The utmost damage has been caused to the towns and villages of Assam by the Brahmaputra floods. The government must put up protective embankments; help the easy drainage of water by removing artificial obstructions, and by adopting local remedies for particular regions. It has been rightly said, Rivers that overtop their banks and flood the adjacent lowlands offer a challenge to the people who must be ready to protect their fields from inundation.

To what extent Essay Example for Free

To what extent Essay For Romans, religion and politics were inseparable, for example, priests were always senators. Augustus needed to be seen as an emperor if he wanted to be one, he used religion to do this; a religious figure would never have been challenged, they were respected and obeyed. When Augustus became pontifex maximus in 12 BC he became, not only the saecular head of the Roman Empire, but the religious leader as well. Augustus used religion to reorganise the state, establish his own legislations and revive old festivals and ceremonies. However, although the advantages to himself were clear, he needed to be aware of Caesar’s fate and not offend tradition. Augustus knew that he had to be very careful about how he went about things in Rome but, in the East, it was a lot more acceptable as the people were already used to worshipping their leaders. If he could be worshipped in the East first, it may make it easier to be worshipped in Rome itself later on. In private it suited Augustus to be integrated with state religion, as demonstrated in the Res Gestae; â€Å"I was pontifex maximus, augur, quindecemviri sacris faciundis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . However, in public Augustus had to appear respectful of traditional practice, as shown on the Ara Pacis. After his death Augustus could be worshipped with no issues, during his lifetime however, it was in no way acceptable. Augustus had to resist the creation of an imperial cult during his lifetime to avoid losing all popular support and ending in the same way as his predecessor did. This said, the creation of an imperial cult, if successful, would bring together the disparate provinces that he governed, bringing not only power but also prestige. An imperial cult was the mass veneration of not only Augustus’ genius, but that of his family and successors. Being a member of the Julian line, he already had some claim to a link with the Gods. Augustus’ Prima Porta, fashioned in a Hellenistic style, not only shows his pietas, but his link with the God of Love, Venus. Clinging to his body is cupid riding a dolphin; as cupid is the sibling of Aenus who founded the Julian line, the direct message that he is involved with the Gods is already being propagated. Equally, the fact that Caesar had been made a deity, established the notion that he was a semi-deity in the minds of many Romans. In the Mediterranean world, Augustus’ provinces were singular in that the citizens of Rome would have regarded treating your ruler as a deity as sacrilegious and immoral. Conversely, in the East, this was not only acceptable, but also demanded. Ptolemaic Egypt was cult-like and worshipped pharaohs as Gods. Due to heterogeneous territories, religion was seen as a uniting factor for rulers to forge links between the populace and themselves. The idea of Augustus openly declaring himself as a deity during his lifetime was an impossibility that would have led to exile or assassination. However, just as Caesar had supposedly risen to the heavens to be immortalised as a deity after his death, he too could be worshipped like this. The evidence of this is demonstrated by the construction of various temples built to him after his death in AD 14; for example, the Temple to Divus Augustus is shown on the Denarius of AD 158. Moreover, Suetonius’s Life of Augustus shows us ways in which, rather than being an innovator of a new imperial cult, Augustus actually restored traditional religious practices. By appearing to ‘buy into’ the conservatism of Roman religion, Augustus would have pleased the tradionalist majority and allowed his continuing expansionist military effort and transgression of the cursus honourum, without worry of religious misdemeanour. Suetonius describes his burning of â€Å"anonymous or unrespected authors† keeping only the sibylline books. He also revived certain rites such as the Augury of Safety, the flamen dialis, the Lupercalia, the Saecular Games and the Compitalia. Additionally, he extended the number and prestige of priesthoods. This demonstrated the difference between Augustus’ private and public goals; whereas privately he wished to integrate himself into state religion, publically he had to show piety and respect towards tradition. As previously noted, in the Res Gestae, Augustus lists his religious powers and titles; considering that the Res Gestae was effectively an autobiography, it can be inferred that this was received positively as he was satisfied to publish this on stele, it is also evident that the Res Gestae was propaganda designed to influence and so can not be deemed as a reliable, nor objective source. Prompting the creation of an imperial cult would have enshrined Augustus as a deity, given him infinite power to develop his empire and secured his legacy forever. However, it was vital that he treaded the delicate line between paying lip service to Roman conservatism whilst at the same time, attempting to set himself above, and apart from, the average Roman politician. Associating himself with Roman deities was an ideal way of achieving this goal and there is a huge range of evidence that he did very little to resist this. Indeed, it is quite possible that he actually endorsed it. Suetonius describes how he renamed the month Sextilis, to August and therefore â€Å"put†¦ straight† the calendar. Equally, the Horologium Augusti in the Campus Martius, an immense sundial drew attention to Augustus in a manner unavailable to other Romans. The Serviri Augustutales at Narbo of AD 12-13 was altar dedicated to Augustus. It proclaimed that the Julian ancestral colony of Narbo Martinius had â€Å"bound themselves to worship his divinity for ever†. Additionally, the Temple of Augustus at Pula (built between 2 BC and AD 14) and the Temple of Augustus at Tarraco were also built. The Temple of Augustus at Pula had a dedication reading â€Å"Roma and Augustus Caesar, son of deity, father of the fatherland† indicating that the temple was primarily dedicated to the goddess Roma, the personification of Rome, making himself a secondary figure to the City in order to not be seen to be encouraging the creation of an imperial cult. It could be argued that, if Augustus was genuinely against the worship of himself and his family, he would have prevented provincials from establishing temples in his name despite the fact that the Hellenistic practice of ruler-worship was well established in certain provinces. However, the evidence suggests that this was not the case as Augustus did little to nothing to prevent the construction of such temples. Indeed, Augustus, upon hearing that the people of Tarraco had reported a palm tree had grown on an altar to him, is recorded by Quintilian to have responded, â€Å"That shows how often you light a fire there†. This clearly opposes the view that he shrinked from such worship as it suggests he encouraged it. However, as Quintilian wrote this decades after the event may have happened, the reliability of this source must be questioned. Furthermore, the aureus of 19 BC depicts the Altar of Fortuna Redux, an altar at the Porta Capena to the Home-bringer, praising her for Augustus’ safe return. This was also the site of the festival of Augustalia; the act of having sacred festivals dedicated to you was naturally a privilege usually reserved to the Gods. Furthermore, the close proximity of Temple of Apollo Palatinus with Augustus’ house blurred the lines between his numen and his power as they came together as an imperial residence. The Hymn of the Salii, or Carmen Saeculare was the song of the ‘leaping priests’ of Mars, keepers of the ancilia and undoubtedly revered positions. The fact that they added his name to this god-praising song was highly unconventional and a bold move if Augustus had ordered this. Augustus evidently sponsored Augustan Literature, through Maecenus’ patronage of several poets. There are many clear examples of Augustus either being associated with the Gods in literature, or being portrayed as god himself. There is no doubt that Augustus knew about these comparisons prior to recital or publication and therefore encouraged these attempts to link himself with deities. Virgil’s Aeneid is the prime example of this; the poem depicts Augustus descending from heaven with â€Å"Iulus†, loaded with the wealth of Egypt of the â€Å"Orient’s spoils† and that â€Å"he too shall be called upon in prayer†. To add to this emphasis of his connection with Iulus, the building of the Temple to Divus Julius in the Forum Romanum and the Temple to Mars Ultor in the forum of Augustus both underline his connection to the semi-deity Caesar through his completion of filial duty. Horace’s Odes 1. 2 similarly shows Augutus as the gods’ ‘right hand man’. Horace describes the moral decline and religious neglect of the period of civil war and strife and Augustus is called forth to atone for previous sins and to â€Å"aid the crumbling Empire†. Such glowing accounts of Augutus can be explained as many of the poets were convalescing from lost estates from civil war times and, through indirect sponsorship from Augustus, were expected to translate underlying messages of the regime into poetry. Naturally, this kind of blatant worshiping was only acceptable in the abstract medium of poetry, as poetry was known to exaggerate reality and stretch any possible truth. Overall, the weight of evidence tends to suggest that Augustus did not try particularly hard to resist the creation of an imperial cult during his lifetime. Although he showed piety and respect to tradition throughout his reign, his sanctioning and, often encouragement, of provincials worshipping him demonstrated that he wished to be classed as a divine being as it meant that he would have gained all possible power. The creation of an imperial cult resulted in an almost tyrannical rule, where Augustus could not be questioned.

Homeless Youth targeted by violence and crime

Homeless Youth targeted by violence and crime About: This paper looks into how the homeless youth are at greater risk than other youth people as they are both victims of criminal activities and are potential targets of the state authorities such as the police. Hence it is argued that the homeless youth are at greater risk of been victimized and targeted by criminal activities due to the contextual and environmental factors involved in their daily lives and it is the responsibility of the authorities to make a change in those circumstances rather than targeting their criminal behaviors or punishing them as the homeless youth are caught in an economic and cultural trap. Introduction Youth can be viewed as a demographic category that is historically and culturally constructed (Wyn White,1997 in Mallett et al.2010). Terms such as young people and adolescence are related terms to the youth and how we think of these groups and their abilities, characteristics and nature varies across time, place, culture and social context they inhibit in. According to the academic and policy provision literature in Australia and in alliance with the World Health Organization, young people refer to people who are aged between 12 years to 25 years (Mallett et al. 2010). Our understandings of issues surrounding these young people such as youth delinquency and youth homelessness are shaped and constructed by the social context and discourse to which they have been assigned to (Mallett et al. 2010). Youth homelessness is one of the main concerns in many of the developed as well as some developing nations due to issues of power, violence and social control associated with the homeless youth (Milburn et al. 2007 Hatty et al. 1996). According to the World Health Organization (1993) there are approximately 100 million children living on the streets all over the world without proper care or shelter (WHO, 1993). There is a range of definition to homelessness with little agreement as to what constitutes the homelessness. The most common definition that dominates the publics view point is the rooflessness or the street homelessness, that defines homeless people as those who are sleeping rough and living on the streets (Hutson Liddiard, 1994). The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission in their report defines homelessness as a lifestyle which includes insecurity and transiency of shelter. In its definition of homelessness, it further emphasised that homelessness is not merely li mited to the lack of shelter but also indicates a state of vulnerability to dangers such as abuse due to the detachment from family (Hatty et al. 1996). According to MacKenzie Chamberlain (2006), the basic idea underlying the cultural definition of homelessness is the shared community standards about the minimum level of accommodation people are expected to have in their community. This minimum level of accommodation acts as the basis for the categorization of homelessness as primary, secondary and tertiary categories of homelessness. The primary category includes those without conventional accommodation and are people living on the streets and the secondary homelessness includes those that move around temporary shelter such as boarding houses and short term stays with other households. The tertiary category of homelessness includes people who are in one particular shelter on a medium to long term basis which is defined as minimum 13 weeks (MacKenzie Chamberlain, 2006). This defi nition of homelessness however does not take into account or include all of the homeless population that are at risk and therefore the service providers often use a more broader definition that includes people who are at risk and are attempting to return to secure accommodation (MacKenzie Chamberlain, 2006). The discourse of at risk youth refers to how young people tend to risk their future by engaging in behaviors that would jeopardize a desirable future through engaging in problematic behaviors in the future. This discourse puts the individual at risk soles responsible for changing their behaviors by individualizing the problems and the solutions (Mallet et al. 2010). Therefore, the homeless youth can be viewed within this discourse when looking into their problematic behaviors such as substance abuse or unsafe sex which in turn labels these youth and stigmatizing them against other youth. WHY LEAVE HOME? GENDER RACE ETC Youth homelessness is a major political and social issue in contemporary Australia where a 50,000 homeless youth with approximately 2% aged between 15 24 years was reported by the year 1998 (Chamberlain MacKenzie, 1998, cited in Milburn et al. 2007). According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, at year 2006, the homeless population in Australia totaled 105,000 with 16% accounting for absolute homelessness such as sleeping out on the streets or in improvised shelter and the number of homeless youth aged between 12 to 18 years was reported as 17,891 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008). These groups of youth are often related with stigma that is associated with deviance and an economically and socially marginalized underclass that created social fears among the public and promote the vulnerability faced by these youth (Blackman, 1997). They are also three times more likely to be arrested for juvenile crimes due to their homelessness (Kaufman Spatz Wisdom, 1999 cited in Thra ne et al. 2008). In this essay I will argue that the groups of homeless youth are at greater risk than other groups of youth due to the greater vulnerability to deviant behaviors and that these deviant behaviors are social constructions that are mostly related to the public perceptions, space and place and as a result are targeted by the law enforcement authorities, mainly the police due to the contextual factors associated with their life style. Why at greater risk? Many studies have been published on the homeless youth and their involvement in the criminal activities (Miles Okamoto, 2008) and it is revealed that the homeless and runaway youth are at higher risks of offending and in engaging in deviant behavior (Thrane et al. 2008) as while on the streets they are always exposed to environments with criminal activity and violence (Miles Okamoto, 2008). Homeless young people are typically viewed as leading risky and chaotic lives with addictions and mental and other health problems that threaten their well-being (Mallett et al. 2010). They often have poor health and well-being due to high level of substance use and abuse and are at higher levels of risk in contracting sexually transmitted disease and experiencing victimization. The key areas of risk related behaviors among homeless youth include drug and alcohol use, physical and mental health issues, unsafe sexual practices and sexual health as well as violence (Mallett et al. 2010). Assaultin g behavior, shoplifting, drug dealing and prostitution to earn money for food are well known crimes among homeless youth (Thrane et al. 2008). Homeless youth are also represented as a high risk population with respect to HIV infections as a result of complex psychological and social forces they are exposed. With the freedom from parental and other social controls at young age, these youth has a greater ability to engage in deviant and risky behaviors which includes sexual risk activities which puts this vulnerable population at higher risk for HIV than their housed counter parts (Milburn et al. 2007). These behaviors can also be explained by their attitude towards their own bodies. With little or no option in life, these young people view their bodies as the last resort or personal capital they own. It is also the last thing they can exercise control or choice over as well as the only thing available for free. This can lead to regarding the body as the final resource for pleasure th at encourages them to extend the body to its limits by use of different substances and by other forms of self inflicted injuries and self abuse (Blackman, 1997). These criminal activities play a major role in constructing the image of homeless youth as dangerous and deviant (Miles Okamoto, 2008). These young people are further at risk of being victimized by criminal activity because of the unlikelihood of them reporting such crimes to the police and the lack of control they have over the environment they live in (Baron 1997; Kipke et al. 1997 cited in Miles Okamoto, 2008). However, it is important to understand the way the context of the street creates a complex set of issues for homeless youth due to negative peer affiliations, exposure to crime, violence and substance use that acts as part of the lived experience of the homeless youth (Miles Okamoto, 2008). According to Blackman (1997), the homeless youth groups has sunken themselves in a localized subculture where specific strategies are used for coping with the threats faced in their everyday lives which he calls the cultural immersion that often acts as an element of a culture of survival. Problems of hunger and shelter lead to offenses from theft of food to serious theft and together with these, problems of unemployment and shelter brings out prostitution (McCarthey Hagan, 1992). This reveals the situational context of the deviances and crimes related to the homeless youth. Therefore, we can suggest that much of the deviant behavior the homeless youth engages in were produced by the conditions they live in and hence in addressing these implications policy on changing the situation context of the streets plays a bigger role than simply focusing on punishment methods (Miles Okamoto, 2008). Why target by the police? Police forces have always had an implicit responsibility in maintaining surveillance on the activities of youth cultures and young people in public spaces in order to ensure their welfare as well as to maintain good order. With regards to homeless youth, the police have been responsible in taking action to remove young people from potentially dangerous and unsafe home environments and these contacts with homeless youth and the capacity of the police to caution with some level of discretion over the prosecution of offences is important in the way that police interacts with youth (Smith, 1995). These discretions and contacts may either be positive or negative depending on number of factors. According Mark Finnane from Griffiths University, the police have often shown some level of discretion over their responses to offences against good order with factors such as class, race, gender and ethnicity of the young person in offence carrying some influence on the manner the police would proc eed with the offence creating a difference in the way young people are treated for offences (Finnane cited in White Alder, 1994). This is particularly relevant in regards to the Aboriginal homeless youth in Australia with serious concerns raised on the relationship between Aboriginal young people and the juvenile justice system (Cunneen, 1995). Aboriginal homeless young people are often subjected to police surveillance with more aggressive police interventions, intimidations and harassments in their day to day lives (Smith, 1995). The Indigenous people were also over represented in all states of the homeless population in Australia (MacKenzie Chamberlain, 2008) as well as in public custody and juvenile detention centers (Cunneen, 1995). Unemployed and with little or no disposable income and with more time in hand, the spaces homeless young people inhabit are more likely to be of risk and violence and as a result they are continually exposed to aggressions which are far from their choosing (Blackman, 1997). Also due to the little social connections they have within the rest of the homeless youth, these young people tend to gather around in public spaces more often that other young people. Due to commercialization where more public space is been taken off for commercial purposes the young homeless youth tend to meet and socialize in shopping centers and other similar places where they become obvious targets of the law enforcement authorities (Smith, 1995). Therefore, need for negotiating public space is a main factor that attracts the police forces to homeless youth as the police carries the responsibility in maintaining good order where as the homeless youth are in search of claiming space of themselves for shelter a nd survival. The relationship between the police and homeless youth are also affected by the public perception of homeless young people (Finnane cited in Smith, 1995). The publics attitude that in return affects the local policies has the ability to increase or decrease the level of social control or strain for homeless youth (Miles Okamoto, 2008). The media portrayal of social problems like homelessness has a great impact on the formation of public attitudes as the media acts as the main source of information to many people (Hutson Lididard, 1994). For example, when the term juvenile delinquency was first presented in the media in the 1950s with a view of youth culture as deviant or delinquent, increasing policing measures were made in order to keep youth cultures under surveillance. Incidents as such provide evidence of a clear relationship between public perception, the media presentations and public policy (Smith, 1995). And these policies and attitudes could result in alienating and stigma tizing the homeless young people by acting as a barrier to achieve positive goals and forcing negative relationships with their communities and authorities (Miles Okamoto, 2008). Conclusion In conclusion, young people living on the streets have typically exited from households with conflict and violence into the streets where they experience threats and acts of violence by other homeless and street predators as well as by those in authority particularly the police (Davis, Hatty Burke, 1995). It is not surprising that these young people encounter more contacts with the police as much of the homeless people reported incidence of drug, alcohol and other substance abuse and minor petty crimes to major threats (Smith, 1995). These crimes associated with the homeless youth are not simply deviant behaviors that can be individualized but are products of the contextual and environmental factors surrounding these youth. Studies have revealed that many homeless young people (up to 55%) reported contact with the police as a consequence of their homelessness and majority of the respondents reported negative relationships with the police where they were distrustful and fearful of th e police (Thrane et al. 2008) while some mentioning of instances where the police helping them access services and help(Smith, 1995). Therefore, it is important that the authorities look more into the context of these homeless young people who are often disengaged from positive sources and are in need direction and assistance rather than control or punishment and criminalizing the homeless youth.

Does attachment theory provide a sound basis for advice on how to brin

Does the attachment theory provide a sound basis for advice on how to bring up children? To answer this question for advice to parents I will explore some of the details of the attachment theory showing, 1) earlier studies and more up to date criticisms, 2) how it proposes family members and day care can affect a child’s upbringing. Attachment is the bond that develops between caregiver and infant when it is about eight or nine months old, providing the child with emotional security. Meshing commences from when the child is being fed, onto taking part in pseudo-dialogue and then following on to the child taking part in a more active role of proto dialogue, illustrated by Kaye (1982), other concepts such as scaffolding and inter-subjectivity have also been explored by psychologists. As the infant grows older the attention escalates towards the direction of the caregiver. John Bowlby(1958, 1969, 1973, 1980) pioneer of the attachment theory was involved in research regarding the emotional connection between the adult and infant and he believed that the early relationships determined the behaviour and emotional development of a child. In an early Bowlby (1944) study he discovered children who had an unsettling upbringing where more likely to become juvenile delinquents. His work is constantly open to criticism and has been revisited with further research. Subsequent research has based measuring security and insecurity in a child from an early age using the Strange Situation Test. Other research has shown certain trends of difficult behaviour and how the child interacts with the caregiver actively. Bowlby’s theory was based on ideas from ethology and previous work, psychodynamic theory by Sigmund Freud, it was appropriate for the 1950’s after the 2nd World War when women were returning to household duties and motherhood as men returned to their employment after the war. He believed that a child should have interaction with one caregiver ‘monotropism’ and that separation from this person would trigger the ‘proximity promoting behaviours’ in the attachment structure. The caregiver arriving would cause the behaviours of, clinging, making noises and crying to discontinue. The protected foundations of the affectionate bonds occurring between parent and infant representation becomes part of the internal working model. Those become the foundations and the heart of a... ...how parents create persons, Brighton, Harvester Press. MAIN, M. and SOLOMON, J. (1990) ‘ Procedures for identifying infants as disorganised/ disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation’ in GRENNBERG, M. T. CICCCHETTI, D. and CUMMINGS, E. M. (eds) Attachment in the Preschool Years, Chicago Ill., University of Chicago Press. VAN IJJZENDOORN, M. H. and KROONENBERG, P. M. (1988) ‘Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: a meta-analysis of the Strange Situation’, Child Development, 59, pp. 147-56 RICHMAN, N., STEVENSON, J. and Graham, P. J. (1982) Pre-School to School: a behavioural study, London, Academic Press. ROBERTSON, J. and ROBERTSON, J. (1952), A Two-Year-Old Goes To Hospital, ‘Attachment’, T. V. program, The Open University (2000), ED209 Child Development, Milton Keynes, The Open University SAMEROFF, A. J. (1991) ‘ The social context of development ‘ in WOODHEAD, M., CARR, R. and LIGHT, P. (eds) Becoming a Person, London, Routledge. STEWART, R. B. (1983) ‘ Siblings attachment relationships: child-infant interactions in the strange situation’, Development Psychology, 19, pp. 192-99.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Law: Gideon Vs Wainright :: essays research papers fc

The framers formed this country with one sole document, the Constitution, which they wrote with great wisdom and foresight. This bountiful wisdom arose from the unjust treatment of King George to which the colonists were subject. Among these violations of the colonists' rights were inequitable trials that made a mockery of justice. As a result, a fair trial of the accused was a right given to the citizens along with other equities that the framers instilled in every other facet of this country's government. These assurances of the citizens' rights stated in the bill of rights. In the Sixth Amendment, it is stated that, "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right...to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence." A first reading of this phrase one might be think that this right, that which gives a person accused of a crime to have lawyers for his defense, is common knowledge being that it is among the most basic rights given to the citizenry of the p ublic. However, the simple manner in which this amendment is phrased creates a "gray area", and subject to interpretation under different circumstances. The legitimacy of the right to mount a legal defense is further obscured by the Fourteenth Amendment which states, "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States." As a result, many questions begin to arise which seek to determine the true right of the accused to the assistance of counsel. Should legal counsel be provided by the government if the accused lacks the funds to assemble a counsel for his defense? Or, on the other hand, does this amendment set the responsibility of assembling a defensive counsel on the accused even if he or she lacks the funds to do so? Also, do the states have the right to make their own legislation regarding the right of the indigent accused to have counsel appointed to them in the state trials, or does the Fo urteenth Amendment prevent this? The Supreme Court was faced with answering these questions in the case of Gideon v. Wainwright. In June of 1961, Clarence Earl Gideon, a fifty year old petty thief, drifter, and gambler who had spent much of his life in and out of jail was arrested in Panama City Florida. He was charged with breaking into a poolroom one night in an effort to steal beer, Coke, and coins from a cigarette machine (Goodman 62).